linguistics

loan translation

elements of a word are translated directly into another language, "scena zbrodni" - "crime scene"

/t/ - slash mark

phoneme

[t] square brackets

physical realization of the phoneme

allophone

variations in pronunciation, but the same phoneme

phonology

universal set, same classes of sounds, same patterns of speech

phonology

study of the sound system

phonetics and phonolgy divided into

segmental level, suprasegmental level

segmental level

single sounds and the way they are made)

SUPRASEGMENTAL LEVEL

study of tonal phenomena

ARTICULATORY PHONETICS:

how speech sounds are made or ’articulated’

ACOUSTIC PHONETICS:

physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air

AUDITORY (PERCEPTUAL) PHONETICS:

perception of speech sounds via the air

speech segment

An individual sound that occurs in a language

speech segment

The act of dividing utterances into sounds, morphemes, words and phrases (difference between gray day vs grade A)

ELEMENTS OF ARTICULATORY PHONETICS

1) Organs of speech, 2) Airstream mechanisms, 3) Sounds: consonants and vowels

consonants

restriction or closure in the vocal tract

CRITERA USED TO DESCRIBE CONSONANTS

PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION

PLACE OF ARTICULATION OF CONSONANTS

lips, tongue, palate (place in the vocal tract where the airflow restriction occurs;)

MANNER OF ARTICULATION CONSONANTS

blocked or partially blocked; vocal cords may vibrate or not vibrate;

TWO IMPORTANT CRITERA USED TO DESCRIBE VOWELS:

THE POSITION OF THE TONGUE, THE APERTURE OF LIPS

THE POSITION OF THE TONGUE

high/mid/low; front/central/back

THE APERTURE OF LIPS

rounded or unrounded

PROSODIC OR SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES

LENGTH, PITCH, COMPLEX FEATURE STRESS

American word (pielucha)

diaper

DIACRITICS

additional markings on written symbols

British word (pielucha)

nappy

American word (falbanka)

dust ruffle

British word (falbanka)

valance

AMERICAN ENGLISH VS BRITISH ENGLISH

1) DIFFERENCES IN VOCABULARY, 2) STYLISTIC DIFFERENCES, 3) WRIG THE DATE, 4) DIFFERTINENCES IN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

STYLISTIC DIFFERENCES

Americans are more verbose, use more adjectives and more hyperbole, and they love long words

WRITING THE DATE

American English: mm/dd/yyyy, British English: dd/mm/yyyy

signalling (BrE)

signaling (AmE)

colour (BrE)

color (AmE)

theatre (BrE)

theater (AmE)

Dialectology

gathering information about the types of variation, construction of linguistic atlases

linguistic geography

work on the geographic patterns of linguistic variation

ISOGLOSS

geographic boundary that separates areas with dialect differences

DIALECT AREA

geographic region where a particular language variety predominates

DIALECT MAP

a map showing the areas where specific dialectal characteristics occur

DIALECT CONTINUUM

no sharp breaks between one dialect or another

DIALECT CONTINUUM

people that inhabit such areas are often bidialectal

BILINGUALISM

not concern regional variation!!! matter of two distinct and different languages that are spoken in a given country

Individual bilingualism

ability of an individual to speak two languages

Individual bilingualism

person who has acquired proficiency in a second language (often the dominant language of a larger community like education, work and that person is raised in and environment, when the other language is spoken (often minority)

codification

Making official rules for how a language should be used, like spelling, grammar, and pronunciation.

STAGES OF LANGUAGE PLANNING

1) Choosing an official language, 2) codification, 3) elaboration, 4) acceptance

elaboration

Elaboration: Adding new words or grammar rules to a language over time to express new ideas or adapt to changes in society.

LINGUA FRANCA

A common language used for communication between people who speak different native languages.

Different examples of Lingua Franca

English (entire world), French (diplomacy and science), Latin (the Roman Empire and Western Christendom), Greek (Eastern Christendom), Yiddish (Jews)

PIDGIN

A simplified form of language used by people who do not share a common language, often for trade or communication

Characteristic features of pidgin

1) Limited vocabulary, 2) No native speakers, 3) Simplified grammar, 4) Basic structure, 5) Basic vowels, 6) Simple tense, 7) Reduplication: Repeating words or parts of words for emphasis

Example of Pidgin

Tok Pisin, spoken in Papua New Guinea

Creole

A fully developed language that evolves from a pidgin when it becomes the native language

Characteristic features of creole

Native speakers, Development among communities,

Examples of creole

French Creoles in Haiti and Louisiana, English Creoles in Jamaica and Sierra Leone

MORPHOLOGY

study of how words are structured and formed.

Morpheme

This is the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function in a language

Root (rdzeń)

You can't break it down into smaller pieces, its the same for entire family

Stem (temat słowotwórczy)

the stem is like a flexible version of the root, it can change, depending on word

Free Morphemes (affix)

stand alone as single words, cat," "dog

Bound Morphemes (affix)

cannot stand alone and are typically attached to other forms, prefixes like "un-" in "undo," suffixes like "-er" in "teacher,"

Lexical Morphemes (function)

nouns, verbs, and adjectives, "book," "run

Functional Morphemes (function)

conjunctions and pronouns, "the," "of

Derivational Morphemes

create new words or change the grammatical category of a word, "-er" in "teacher," "-ize" in "organize"

Inflectional Morphemes

change the grammatical structure of word, "-s" in "cats," "-ed" in "walked," "-ing" in "running"

Affixation

method of creating complex words by adding affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes) to roots or stems

Content Words

denote concepts like objects, actions, or attributes, "book," "run

Function Words

serve grammatical functions, "the," "of," "and,

eponyms

Words derived from proper names, "sandwich" from Earl Sandwich

Coinage

Invention of new words, often from commercial products, "nutella", "aspiryn", "Xerox," "Kleenex," "Google"

Borrowing

Adopting words from other languages, "boss" from Dutch, "croissant" from French

Compounding

Creating new words by combining two or more existing words, "blackboard," "waterfall," "sunglasses"

Internal Modification

Changing sounds within words to create new forms, "swam" from "swim," "teeth" from "tooth"

Blends

Creating words by blending parts of two or more words together, "brunch" from "breakfast" and "lunch," "smog" from "smoke" and "fog"

Acronyms

Words formed from the initial letters or parts of other words, "NASA" (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), SAY AS WORD

Clipping

Shortening of words, "ad" from "advertisement," "phone" from "telephone", REMOVING SYLLABLES

Back-Formation

Creating new words by removinng affixes, "doate" from "donation," "edit" from "editor from existing words, mistakenly remove a part of a word

Subtraction

taking away a part of a word (AFFIX!!!) to change it, "happiness," if we take away "-ness," we get "happy

Alphabetism

the first letters of each word in a phrase or name to create a shorter form, SAY LETTER BY LETTER

difference between an alphabetism and acronym

ALPHABETISM - LETTER BY LETTER, ACRONYM - AS WORD

Suppletion

word's different forms don't follow a regular pattern. For example, "go" changes to "went" in the past tense, instead of something like "goed."

syllable words pronounced as words

BENELUX (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg)

Assimilation

When a sound changes to become more like a neighboring sound. For example, "handbag" might be pronounced as "hamdbag"

Dissimilation

When a sound changes to become less like a neighboring sound. For instance, "comfortable" might be pronounced as "comfortaboo"

Epenthesis

Adding an extra sound, typically a vowel, into a word. For example, saying "athlete" as "ath-e-lete" instead of "athlet."

Elision

Dropping a sound or syllable from a word during speech. For instance, "gonna" instead of "going to."

Metathesis

Rearranging the order of sounds or syllables within a word. For example, "ask" being pronounced as "aks.

Gradable antonyms

represent opposite ends of a scale and allow for degrees of comparison, like "hot" and "cold

Complementary antonyms

pairs where having one implies the absence of the other, like "alive" and "dead."

Relational antonyms

pairs where one word describes a relationship with another, like "parent" and "child."

methatesis

order of sounds or letters in a word is switched. For example, "ask" being pronounced as "aks."

Hyponym

word that is more specific than another word, representing a subcategory or type. For example, "rose" is a hyponym of "flower

Homonym

Words that sound or look the same but have different meanings. For example, "bat" (a flying mammal) and "bat" (a sports equipment).

Homophone

Words that sound the same but have different meanings or spellings. For example, "right" (correct) and "write" (to inscribe)

Polysemy

When a single word has multiple related meanings. For example, "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river

Metonymy

Using a word to represent something closely related to it. For example, "the White House" referring to the U.S. government.

Retronym

A new term created to distinguish an original concept from a later development. For example, "analog watch" after the invention of digital watches.

The Great Vowel Shif

middle ages, changes in pronounciation, (hus-haus), (wif-waift), (ges-gis)

Changes in early modern English

morphological (loss of endings), syntatics(order, doubl negation), lexical(borrowings from Anglo - Saxons), semantics(broadening, narrowing meaning)

terms from Celts

slogan (battle cry), whiskey (water of life), penguin (white head), rivers and hills

OLD ENGLISH = ANGLO - SAXONS

written using Latin alphabet, supplemented by Germanic runic letters

the influence of the roman empire upon English

minor influence, Roman Britannia, Londiniumt, Leicester, Manchester

the influence of the Latin upon English

master, mass, school - BASIS FOR WRITING SYSTEM

Conceptual meaning

literal or dictionary definition of a word

associative meaning

personal or emotional connections we make with that word based on our experiences

lexicon

mental dictionary where all the words and phrases we know are stored. It's basically the vocabulary of a person or a language.

french

language of upper classes

the earliest writing system

Egypt, Mesopotamia (invented by Sumierians), representative form

cuneifrom

phonetically and semantically functio (sound and object)

the first alphabet

Phoenicians - 22 characters, only consonants

Pinyin

street signs, Roman alphabet